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The role of tourism, energy consumption, urbanization, and economic growth on ecological footprint: The Turkish case

Yıl 2022, Sayı: 38, 440 - 449, 31.08.2022
https://doi.org/10.31590/ejosat.1030941

Öz

The current paper aims to examine the impacts of tourism, energy consumption, urbanization, and economic growth on the environmental quality in Turkey for the from 1963 to 2016. Apart from the previous empirical EKC studies, we tested the validity of the tourism-induced environmental Kuznets curve (EKC) hypothesis by using a more comprehensive ecological quality indicator named Ecological Footprint. For this purpose, we employ FMOLS and DOLS estimators to estimate our model and CCR estimator to check the robustness of the FMOLS and DOLS estimation results. Moreover, we use the VECM approach to detect the causality between variables. Our results reveal that tourism induced EKC is not confirmed for Turkey however results confirm the tourism-led growth for Turkey. Empirical results also show that energy usage, urbanization, and international tourism arrival lead to environmental degradation in Turkey. Hence, the Turkish government should design a more efficient policy that accelerates the transition to renewable energy in the economy, including the tourism sector. Moreover, Turkey needs to benefit from the advantages of circular economy and smart tourism in the country.

Kaynakça

  • Akbostancı, E., Türüt-Aşık, S. & Tunç, G.I. (2009). The relationship between income and environment in Turkey: Is there an environmental Kuznets curve? Energy Policy, 37(3), 861-867.
  • Akadiri, S.S., Alola, A.A.& Akadiri, A.C. (2019). The role of globalization, real income, tourism in environmental sustainability target. Evidence from Turkey. Science and Total Environment, 687, 423-432.
  • Amri, F. (2018). Carbon dioxide emissions, total factor productivity, ICT, trade, financial development, and energy consumption: testing environmental Kuznets curve hypothesis for Tunisia. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 25, 33691–33701.
  • Apergis, N., & Payne, J.E. (2009). CO2 emissions, energy usage, and output in Central America. Energy Policy, 37(8), 3282-3286.
  • Apergis N.,& Payne J.E. (2010). Renewable energy consumption and economic growth: Evidence from a panel of OECD countries. Energy Policy, 38(1), 656-660.
  • Bella, G. (2018). Estimating the tourism induced environmental Kuznets curve in France. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 26(12), 2043-2052.
  • Bozkurt, C., Akan Y.& Okumus, I. (2016). Environmental Kuznets Curve Hypothesis in BRICTS: The role of tourism, 14th International Scientific Conference on Economic and Social Development Belgrade, Serbia, 13-14 May 2016.
  • Bölük, G.,& Karkacier O. (2019). Structural Analysis of Interaction Between Tourism, Energy, and other Aggragated Sectors in Turkey: Input-Output Model (In Turkish). International Journal of Management, Economics and Business, 15(2),390-408.
  • Brüggemann, R., Lütkepohl, H., & Saikkonen, P. (2006). Residual autocorrelation testing for vector error correction models. Journal of Econometrics, 134 (2), 579-604.
  • Danish, & Wang, Z. (2018). Dynamic Relationship between tourism, economic growth and environmental quality. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 26 (11), 1928-1943.
  • Danish, Zhang, B., Wang, B., & Wand, Z. (2017). Role of renewable energy and non-renewable energy consumption on EKC: Evidence from Pakistan. Journal of Cleaner Production, 156,855-864.
  • De Vita, G., Katircioglu, S., Altinay, L., Fethi, S., & Mercan, M. (2015). Revisiting the environmental Kuznets curve hypothesis in a tourism development contex, Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 22, 16652-16663.
  • Dickey, D. A.& Fuller, W. A. (1979). Distribution of the Estimators for Autoregressive Time Series with a Unit Root. Journal of American Statistiscial Association, 74(366a), 427–431.
  • Dickey, D. A.,& Fuller, W. A. (1981). Likelihood Ratio Statistics for Autoregressive Time Series with a Unit Root. Econometrica. 49(4), 1057.
  • Dinda, S.(2004). Environmental Kuznets Curve Hypothesis: A Survey. Ecological Economics,49, 431-455.
  • Dogan, E., Seker, F., & Bulbul, S.(2017). Investigating the impacts of energy consumption, real GDP, tourism, and trade on CO2 emissions by accounting for crosssectional dependence: A panel study of OECD countries. Current Issues in Tourism. 20 (16), 1701-1719.
  • Dogan, E., & Aslan, A. (2017). Exploring the relationship among CO2 emissions, real GDP, energy consumption and tourism in the EU and candidate countries: Evidence from panel models robust to heterogeneity and cross-sectional dependence. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Review, 77, 239-245.
  • Dong, K., Sun, R., Li, H.,& Liao, H. (2018). Does natural gas consumption mitigate CO2 emissions: testing the environmental Kuznets curve hypothesis for 14 Asia-Pacific countries. Renew. Sust. Energ. Rev. 94, 418-429.
  • Elliott, G., Rothenberg, T.J., & Stock, J.H., (1996). Efficient Tests for an Autoreggressive Unit Root. Econometrica, 64(4), 813.
  • Enders W.(2014). Applied Econometric Time Series (Fourth Ed.). Unites States: John Wiley&Sons.Inc.
  • Etokakpan, M.U., Osundina, O.A., Bekun, F.V.,& Sarkodie, S.A.(2020). Rethinking electricity consumption on economic growth nexus in Turkey: environmental pros and cons. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 27(31), 39222-39240.
  • Eyupoglu, E.,& Uzar, U., (2020). The impact of tourism on CO2 emission in Turkey. Current Issues Tourism, 23(13), 1631-1645.
  • Fayissa, B., Nsiah, C., &Tadasse, B. (2007). The Impact of Tourism on Economic Growth and Development in Africa. Department of Economics and Finance Working Paper Series, August 2007. Murfreesboro, TN 37132.
  • Gamage, S.K.N., Kuruppuge, R.H.,& ul Haq, T. (2017). Energy consumption, tourism development, and environmental degradation in Sri Lanka. Energy Sources, Part B: Economics, Planning and Policy,12(10), 910-916.
  • Ghali, M.A. (1976). Tourism and economic growth: An empirical study. Economic Development and Cultural Change,24(3), 527–538.
  • Gill, A.R., Viswanathan, K.K., & Hassan, S. (2018). A test of environmental Kuznets curve (EKC) for carbon emission and potential of renewable energy to reduce greenhouse gases (GHG) in Malaysia. Environment Development and Sustainability, 20,1103-1114.
  • Global Footprint Network. (2021). https://www.footprintnetwork.org/. Godil, D.I., Sharif, A., Rafique, S., &Jermsittiparsert, K. (2020). The asymmetric effect of tourism, financial development, and globalization on ecological footprint in Turkey. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 27(32), 40109-40120.
  • Gregory, A.W., & Hansen, B.E.(1996). Residual-based tests for cointegration in models with regime shifts. Journal of Econometrics, 70(1), 99-126.
  • Grossman, G.M., & Krueger, A.B. (1993). Environmental impacts of a North American free trade agreement', in Garber, P., ed., The Mexico-US Free Trade Agreement, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
  • Grossman, G.M.,& Krueger, A.B. (1995). Economic growth and the environment. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 110(2), 353-357.
  • Hatemi-J.A. (2008). Tests for cointegration with two unknown regime shifts with an application to financial market integration. Empirical Economics, 35(3), 497-505.
  • Hye, Q. M. A., & Khan R.E.A. (2013). Tourism-Led Growth Hypothesis: A Case Study of Pakistan. Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism, 12,1-11.
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  • Isik, C., & Shahbaz, M. (2015). Energy consumption and economic growth: A panel data approach to OECD countries. International Journal of Energy Science, 5(1), 1-5.
  • Jebli, M.B., &Hadhri W. (2018). The dynamic links between CO2 emissions from transport, real GDP, energy use and international tourism. International Journal of Sustainable Development&World Ecology, 25(6), 568-577.
  • Katircioglu, S. (2014). International tourism, energy consumption, and environmental pollution: The case of Turkey. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Review, 36,180-187.
  • Katircioglu, S., Korhan, K. Gokmenoglu, K.K., & Eren, B.M., (2018). Testing the role of tourism development in ecological footprint quality:evidence from top 10 tourist destinations. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 25, 33611–33619.
  • Khoi N.H., Le N.H., Ngoc B.H., (2021). The effect of tourism development on the ecological footprint in Singapore:evidence from asymmetric ARDL method. Current Issues in Tourism, 1-16.
  • Kongbuamai, N., Zafar, M.W., Zaidi, S.A.H., & Liu, Y. (2020). Determinants of the ecological footprint in Thailand: the influences of tourism, trade openness, and population density. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 27(32), 40171-40186. Kuznets, S. (1955). Economic Growth and Income Inequality. American Economic Review, 45 (1),1-28.
  • Kwiatkowski, D., Philips, P.C.B., Schmidt, P., & Shin, Y. (1992). Testing the null hypothesis of stationary against the alternative of a unit root. Journal of Econometrics, 54 (1-3), 159-178.
  • Lee, C-C., & Chen, M-P. (2021). Ecological Footprint, tourism development, and country risk: international evidence. Journal of Cleaner Production, 279, 123671.
  • Lee, J. W., & Brahmasrene, T. (2013). Investigating the influence of tourism on economic growth and carbon emissions: Evidence from panel analysis of the European Union. Tourism Management, 38, 69–76.
  • Liu, Y., Kumail, T, Ali, W., & Sadiq, F. (2019). The dynamic relationship between CO2 emission, international tourism, and energy consumption in Pakistan: a cointegration approach. Tourism Review,74(4), 761-779.
  • Luzzati, T., & Orsini, M. (2009). Investigating the energy-environmental Kuznets curve. Energy, 34(3), 291-300. Maki, D. (2012). Tests for cointegration allowing for an unknown number of breaks. Economic Modelling, 29(5), 2011-2015.
  • Marrero, G.A (2010). Greenhouse gases emissions, growth, and the energy mix in Europe. Energy Economics, 32(6), 1356-1363.
  • Mikayilov, J., Mukhtarov, S., Mammadov, J., & Azizov, M. (2019). Re-evaluating the environmental impacts of tourism: does EKC exist? Environmental Science and Pollution Research,.26,19389–19402.
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  • Nair, S. (2017). 2017 International Year of Sustainable Tourism for Development, https://www.jagranjosh.com/current-affairs/2017-international-year-of-sustainable-tourism-for-development-1483516683-1 (accessed 16.02.2020).
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The role of tourism, energy consumption, urbanization, and economic growth on ecological footprint: The Turkish case

Yıl 2022, Sayı: 38, 440 - 449, 31.08.2022
https://doi.org/10.31590/ejosat.1030941

Öz

The current paper aims to examine the impacts of tourism, energy consumption, urbanization, and economic growth on the environmental quality in Turkey for the from 1963 to 2016. Apart from the previous empirical EKC studies, we tested the validity of the tourism-induced environmental Kuznets curve (EKC) hypothesis by using a more comprehensive ecological quality indicator named Ecological Footprint. For this purpose, we employ FMOLS and DOLS estimators to estimate our model and CCR estimator to check the robustness of the FMOLS and DOLS estimation results. Moreover, we use the VECM approach to detect the causality between variables. Our results reveal that tourism induced EKC is not confirmed for Turkey however results confirm the tourism-led growth for Turkey. Empirical results also show that energy usage, urbanization, and international tourism arrival lead to environmental degradation in Turkey. Hence, the Turkish government should design a more efficient policy that accelerates the transition to renewable energy in the economy, including the tourism sector. Moreover, Turkey needs to benefit from the advantages of circular economy and smart tourism in the country.

Kaynakça

  • Akbostancı, E., Türüt-Aşık, S. & Tunç, G.I. (2009). The relationship between income and environment in Turkey: Is there an environmental Kuznets curve? Energy Policy, 37(3), 861-867.
  • Akadiri, S.S., Alola, A.A.& Akadiri, A.C. (2019). The role of globalization, real income, tourism in environmental sustainability target. Evidence from Turkey. Science and Total Environment, 687, 423-432.
  • Amri, F. (2018). Carbon dioxide emissions, total factor productivity, ICT, trade, financial development, and energy consumption: testing environmental Kuznets curve hypothesis for Tunisia. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 25, 33691–33701.
  • Apergis, N., & Payne, J.E. (2009). CO2 emissions, energy usage, and output in Central America. Energy Policy, 37(8), 3282-3286.
  • Apergis N.,& Payne J.E. (2010). Renewable energy consumption and economic growth: Evidence from a panel of OECD countries. Energy Policy, 38(1), 656-660.
  • Bella, G. (2018). Estimating the tourism induced environmental Kuznets curve in France. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 26(12), 2043-2052.
  • Bozkurt, C., Akan Y.& Okumus, I. (2016). Environmental Kuznets Curve Hypothesis in BRICTS: The role of tourism, 14th International Scientific Conference on Economic and Social Development Belgrade, Serbia, 13-14 May 2016.
  • Bölük, G.,& Karkacier O. (2019). Structural Analysis of Interaction Between Tourism, Energy, and other Aggragated Sectors in Turkey: Input-Output Model (In Turkish). International Journal of Management, Economics and Business, 15(2),390-408.
  • Brüggemann, R., Lütkepohl, H., & Saikkonen, P. (2006). Residual autocorrelation testing for vector error correction models. Journal of Econometrics, 134 (2), 579-604.
  • Danish, & Wang, Z. (2018). Dynamic Relationship between tourism, economic growth and environmental quality. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 26 (11), 1928-1943.
  • Danish, Zhang, B., Wang, B., & Wand, Z. (2017). Role of renewable energy and non-renewable energy consumption on EKC: Evidence from Pakistan. Journal of Cleaner Production, 156,855-864.
  • De Vita, G., Katircioglu, S., Altinay, L., Fethi, S., & Mercan, M. (2015). Revisiting the environmental Kuznets curve hypothesis in a tourism development contex, Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 22, 16652-16663.
  • Dickey, D. A.& Fuller, W. A. (1979). Distribution of the Estimators for Autoregressive Time Series with a Unit Root. Journal of American Statistiscial Association, 74(366a), 427–431.
  • Dickey, D. A.,& Fuller, W. A. (1981). Likelihood Ratio Statistics for Autoregressive Time Series with a Unit Root. Econometrica. 49(4), 1057.
  • Dinda, S.(2004). Environmental Kuznets Curve Hypothesis: A Survey. Ecological Economics,49, 431-455.
  • Dogan, E., Seker, F., & Bulbul, S.(2017). Investigating the impacts of energy consumption, real GDP, tourism, and trade on CO2 emissions by accounting for crosssectional dependence: A panel study of OECD countries. Current Issues in Tourism. 20 (16), 1701-1719.
  • Dogan, E., & Aslan, A. (2017). Exploring the relationship among CO2 emissions, real GDP, energy consumption and tourism in the EU and candidate countries: Evidence from panel models robust to heterogeneity and cross-sectional dependence. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Review, 77, 239-245.
  • Dong, K., Sun, R., Li, H.,& Liao, H. (2018). Does natural gas consumption mitigate CO2 emissions: testing the environmental Kuznets curve hypothesis for 14 Asia-Pacific countries. Renew. Sust. Energ. Rev. 94, 418-429.
  • Elliott, G., Rothenberg, T.J., & Stock, J.H., (1996). Efficient Tests for an Autoreggressive Unit Root. Econometrica, 64(4), 813.
  • Enders W.(2014). Applied Econometric Time Series (Fourth Ed.). Unites States: John Wiley&Sons.Inc.
  • Etokakpan, M.U., Osundina, O.A., Bekun, F.V.,& Sarkodie, S.A.(2020). Rethinking electricity consumption on economic growth nexus in Turkey: environmental pros and cons. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 27(31), 39222-39240.
  • Eyupoglu, E.,& Uzar, U., (2020). The impact of tourism on CO2 emission in Turkey. Current Issues Tourism, 23(13), 1631-1645.
  • Fayissa, B., Nsiah, C., &Tadasse, B. (2007). The Impact of Tourism on Economic Growth and Development in Africa. Department of Economics and Finance Working Paper Series, August 2007. Murfreesboro, TN 37132.
  • Gamage, S.K.N., Kuruppuge, R.H.,& ul Haq, T. (2017). Energy consumption, tourism development, and environmental degradation in Sri Lanka. Energy Sources, Part B: Economics, Planning and Policy,12(10), 910-916.
  • Ghali, M.A. (1976). Tourism and economic growth: An empirical study. Economic Development and Cultural Change,24(3), 527–538.
  • Gill, A.R., Viswanathan, K.K., & Hassan, S. (2018). A test of environmental Kuznets curve (EKC) for carbon emission and potential of renewable energy to reduce greenhouse gases (GHG) in Malaysia. Environment Development and Sustainability, 20,1103-1114.
  • Global Footprint Network. (2021). https://www.footprintnetwork.org/. Godil, D.I., Sharif, A., Rafique, S., &Jermsittiparsert, K. (2020). The asymmetric effect of tourism, financial development, and globalization on ecological footprint in Turkey. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 27(32), 40109-40120.
  • Gregory, A.W., & Hansen, B.E.(1996). Residual-based tests for cointegration in models with regime shifts. Journal of Econometrics, 70(1), 99-126.
  • Grossman, G.M., & Krueger, A.B. (1993). Environmental impacts of a North American free trade agreement', in Garber, P., ed., The Mexico-US Free Trade Agreement, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
  • Grossman, G.M.,& Krueger, A.B. (1995). Economic growth and the environment. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 110(2), 353-357.
  • Hatemi-J.A. (2008). Tests for cointegration with two unknown regime shifts with an application to financial market integration. Empirical Economics, 35(3), 497-505.
  • Hye, Q. M. A., & Khan R.E.A. (2013). Tourism-Led Growth Hypothesis: A Case Study of Pakistan. Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism, 12,1-11.
  • IMF, (2019). World Economic Outlook Database, October 2019, International Money Fund, www.imf.org,2019 (accessed 16.6.2021).
  • Isik, C., & Shahbaz, M. (2015). Energy consumption and economic growth: A panel data approach to OECD countries. International Journal of Energy Science, 5(1), 1-5.
  • Jebli, M.B., &Hadhri W. (2018). The dynamic links between CO2 emissions from transport, real GDP, energy use and international tourism. International Journal of Sustainable Development&World Ecology, 25(6), 568-577.
  • Katircioglu, S. (2014). International tourism, energy consumption, and environmental pollution: The case of Turkey. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Review, 36,180-187.
  • Katircioglu, S., Korhan, K. Gokmenoglu, K.K., & Eren, B.M., (2018). Testing the role of tourism development in ecological footprint quality:evidence from top 10 tourist destinations. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 25, 33611–33619.
  • Khoi N.H., Le N.H., Ngoc B.H., (2021). The effect of tourism development on the ecological footprint in Singapore:evidence from asymmetric ARDL method. Current Issues in Tourism, 1-16.
  • Kongbuamai, N., Zafar, M.W., Zaidi, S.A.H., & Liu, Y. (2020). Determinants of the ecological footprint in Thailand: the influences of tourism, trade openness, and population density. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 27(32), 40171-40186. Kuznets, S. (1955). Economic Growth and Income Inequality. American Economic Review, 45 (1),1-28.
  • Kwiatkowski, D., Philips, P.C.B., Schmidt, P., & Shin, Y. (1992). Testing the null hypothesis of stationary against the alternative of a unit root. Journal of Econometrics, 54 (1-3), 159-178.
  • Lee, C-C., & Chen, M-P. (2021). Ecological Footprint, tourism development, and country risk: international evidence. Journal of Cleaner Production, 279, 123671.
  • Lee, J. W., & Brahmasrene, T. (2013). Investigating the influence of tourism on economic growth and carbon emissions: Evidence from panel analysis of the European Union. Tourism Management, 38, 69–76.
  • Liu, Y., Kumail, T, Ali, W., & Sadiq, F. (2019). The dynamic relationship between CO2 emission, international tourism, and energy consumption in Pakistan: a cointegration approach. Tourism Review,74(4), 761-779.
  • Luzzati, T., & Orsini, M. (2009). Investigating the energy-environmental Kuznets curve. Energy, 34(3), 291-300. Maki, D. (2012). Tests for cointegration allowing for an unknown number of breaks. Economic Modelling, 29(5), 2011-2015.
  • Marrero, G.A (2010). Greenhouse gases emissions, growth, and the energy mix in Europe. Energy Economics, 32(6), 1356-1363.
  • Mikayilov, J., Mukhtarov, S., Mammadov, J., & Azizov, M. (2019). Re-evaluating the environmental impacts of tourism: does EKC exist? Environmental Science and Pollution Research,.26,19389–19402.
  • Mitic, P., Kresoja, M., & Minovic, J. (2019). A Literature Survey of the Environmental Kuznets Curve. Economic Analysis, 51(1), 109-127.
  • Nair, S. (2017). 2017 International Year of Sustainable Tourism for Development, https://www.jagranjosh.com/current-affairs/2017-international-year-of-sustainable-tourism-for-development-1483516683-1 (accessed 16.02.2020).
  • Nathaniel, S.P., Barua S.,&Ahmed Z.(2021). What drives ecological footprint in top ten tourist destinations? Evidence from advanced panel techniques. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 28, 38322-38331.
  • Nepal, R., al Irsyad, M.I, &Nepal, K. S. (2019). Tourist arrivals, energy consumption and pollutant emissions in a developing economy–implications for sustainable tourism. Tourism Management, 72,145-154.
  • Nunkoo, R., Seetanah, B., & Jaffur, R.Z.K. (2019). Tourism and economic growth: a meta-regression analysis. Journal of Travel Research, 59, 1–20.
  • OECD (2021). Turkey, https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/sites/f3b16239-en/index.html?itemId=/content/component/f3b16239-en.
  • Ozturk, I., Al-Mulali U., & Saboori B. (2016). Investigating the environmental Kuznets curve hypothesis: the role of tourism and ecological footprint. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 23, 1916–1928.
  • Pao H-T., &Tsai C-M. (2011). Modeling and forecasting the CO2 emissions, energy consumption, and economic growth in Brazil. Energy, 36(5), 2450-2458.
  • Paramati, S.R. Md., Alam, Md.S., & Chen, C-F. (2017). The Effects of Tourism on Economic Growth and CO2 Emissions: A Comparison between Developed and Developing Economies. Journal of Travel Research, 56(6), 712–724.
  • Park, J.Y. (1992). Canonical Cointegrating Regressions. Econometrica, 60(1), 119.
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  • Qureshi, M.I., Hassan, M.A., Hishan, S. S., Rasli A. M. , & Zaman , K. (2017). Dynamic linkages between sustainable tourism, energy, health, and wealth: Evidence from top 80 international tourist destination cities in 37 countries. Journal of Cleaner Production, 158,143-155.
  • Sarkodie, S.A., & Strezov, V. (2018). Empirical study of environmental Kuznets curve and environmental sustainability curve hypothesis for Australia, China, Ghana, and USA. Journal of Cleaner Production, 201,98-110.
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  • Zhou, W., Zhu, B., Chen, D., Griffy-Brown, C., Ma, Y.,& Fei, W. (2012). Energy consumption patterns in the process of China’s urbanization. Population and Environment, 33(2–3), 202–220.
Toplam 85 adet kaynakça vardır.

Ayrıntılar

Birincil Dil İngilizce
Konular Mühendislik
Bölüm Makaleler
Yazarlar

Gülden Bölük 0000-0001-8901-8503

Murat Güven 0000-0001-5604-4369

Erken Görünüm Tarihi 26 Temmuz 2022
Yayımlanma Tarihi 31 Ağustos 2022
Yayımlandığı Sayı Yıl 2022 Sayı: 38

Kaynak Göster

APA Bölük, G., & Güven, M. (2022). The role of tourism, energy consumption, urbanization, and economic growth on ecological footprint: The Turkish case. Avrupa Bilim Ve Teknoloji Dergisi(38), 440-449. https://doi.org/10.31590/ejosat.1030941